Given the increasing relevance of sustainable nutrition in protecting both individual health and environmental integrity, this study provides meaningful insights into the interrelationship between ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption, carbon footprint awareness, and sustainable and healthy eating behaviors. In recent years, sustainable nutrition has emerged as a central concept, aiming to safeguard both human health and environmental integrity. Global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion increasingly threaten food security and challenge the continuity of sustainable dietary practices. Notably, the widespread consumption of UPFs has been linked to adverse health outcomes as well as significant environmental harm. High energy demands, plastic packaging waste, and increased greenhouse gas emissions associated with UPFs contribute substantially to ecological degradation. Conversely, growing carbon footprint awareness defined as individuals’ understanding of their environmental impact and efforts to reduce emissions has the potential to promote more environmentally responsible dietary choices. Despite increasing attention to these topics, no previous study has simultaneously explored the relationship between UPF consumption, carbon footprint awareness, and sustainable eating behaviors in adult populations [23, 24].
In light of growing concerns regarding both human and planetary health, this study aimed to provide novel insights into sustainable and healthy eating by examining the relationships between individuals’ eating behaviors and their environmental awareness. Specifically, it investigated the associations among ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption, carbon footprint awareness, and sustainable healthy eating behaviors in an adult population. Key findings revealed that 55.7% of participants reported high UPF consumption, indicating a tendency toward unhealthy dietary patterns. A significant positive association was observed between carbon footprint awareness and sustainable eating behaviors, suggesting that individuals with greater environmental consciousness are more likely to engage in health-promoting and ecologically responsible food choices. Conversely, higher UPF consumption was linked to lower awareness and poorer sustainable eating practices, underscoring an inverse relationship among these variables. Moreover, younger age, non-employment, and being single were associated with elevated UPF intake.
Regression analyses further demonstrated that age, carbon footprint awareness, and sustainable eating behavior scores significantly predicted UPF consumption. Additionally, carbon footprint awareness was influenced by age, sustainable eating behaviors, and UPF intake, while sustainable eating behaviors were also predicted by carbon footprint awareness and UPF levels. These findings emphasize the need for integrative public health strategies that address both environmental awareness and dietary behavior in order to promote sustainable and health-conscious food choices.
In this study, 55.7% of participants reported high levels of UPF consumption, highlighting the growing integration of these products into modern dietary patterns. This finding is consistent with international data indicating that UPFs account for 57.9% of daily energy intake in the United States, 56.8% in the United Kingdom, and 47.7% in Canada [25]. These figures suggest that UPFs are becoming a dominant component of the global food supply, raising concerns regarding their contribution to declining diet quality and increased risk of diet-related chronic diseases.
A significant positive association was observed between carbon footprint awareness and sustainable, healthy eating behaviors. This finding suggests that individuals with higher environmental awareness may also demonstrate greater commitment to health-conscious food choices. However, as UPF consumption increased, both sustainable and healthy eating behaviors and carbon footprint awareness declined revealing a negative and mutually reinforcing interaction. These results are in line with previous studies reporting an inverse relationship between UPF consumption and sustainability-oriented dietary behaviors [26]. This behavioral pattern is further supported by the literature. Research also suggests that health consciousness plays a mediating role in food decision-making. Individuals with greater awareness of health and nutrition tend to avoid ultra-processed products in favor of natural, minimally processed alternative [27]. Health-conscious consumers are also more likely to read nutrition labels, adhere to dietary guidelines, and engage in behaviors that promote well-being, such as balanced eating and physical activity [28, 29]. These behaviors may foster critical attitudes toward UPFs, leading individuals to prioritize long-term health outcomes over short-term sensory appeal. Such an approach may enhance both individual and planetary health outcomes.
Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of integrating nutrition education and environmental awareness initiatives to promote more informed, sustainable and healthy eating behaviors, and to reduce reliance on UPFs, which are often energy-dense, nutritionally poor, and environmentally burdensome. Martinez et al. demonstrated that environmentally sustainable food options can also be economically viable, supporting dietary shifts even among cost-sensitive populations [30]. Likewise, Gaines et al. showed that replacing high-emission foods with lower-emission alternatives significantly reduced household carbon emissions [31]. García et al. demonstrated that reducing UPF consumption significantly lowers greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, and land use, underscoring the environmental benefits of dietary shifts towards minimally processed foods [32]. These studies highlight the role of individual awareness and food choices in promoting sustainability.
In our study, UPF consumption was significantly higher among individuals who were not employed (p < 0.001). While we did not collect direct income data, employment status may reflect underlying socioeconomic conditions. This finding is in line with prior research suggesting that individuals with limited financial or occupational resources are more likely to consume ultra-processed foods, due to affordability, availability, and targeted marketing. Although socioeconomic status (SES) is widely acknowledged as a potential determinant of UPF consumption, our study did not include detailed SES indicators such as income level, occupation, or household wealth. Previous research shows that UPF consumption tends to be more prevalent among lower socioeconomic groups due to factors like affordability, accessibility, and marketing strategies targeting vulnerable populations [7, 33]. However, in some urban or higher-income populations, lifestyle convenience and exposure to modern food environments can also lead to high UPF intake [34, 35]. These findings suggest that UPF consumption is shaped by a combination of economic limitations and lifestyle-related factors, including convenience, limited time availability, and frequent exposure to persuasive food marketing.
The high consumption of UPFs has significant implications not only for individual health but also for environmental sustainability. As global attention to environmental challenges intensifies, consumers are increasingly encouraged to consider the ecological impact of their dietary choices [36]. A previous study has shown that individuals with higher environmental awareness are more likely to adopt dietary patterns with lower ecological impact such as plant-based, seasonal, or locally sourced foods [37]. Ivanovich et al. projected that current global food consumption patterns, particularly high meat and dairy intake, could contribute an additional 0.7 °C of warming by 2100, underscoring the critical need for dietary shifts to mitigate climate change [38].
Consistent with this, our findings revealed that participants with higher carbon footprint awareness were more likely to engage in sustainable and healthy eating behaviors. Furthermore, both our study and the existing literature suggest that environmentally conscious individuals tend to reduce their consumption of UPFs due to the environmental burdens associated with their production, packaging, and distribution processes [39]. This alignment between environmental values and eating behaviors highlights the potential of ecological awareness as a lever for promoting healthier and more sustainable food choices. Such environmentally aligned eating patterns may not only benefit personal health but also contribute meaningfully to climate change mitigation efforts.
Studies conducted in Türkiye also support our findings regarding the relationship between environmental awareness and food preferences. For instance, Karadirek et al. [40]. found that individuals with high environmental awareness demonstrated more conscious food choices. Similarly, Engin et al. [41] reported that individuals with high behavioral environmental awareness were more inclined to adopt sustainable eating habits and shaped their eating behaviors accordingly. Another national study [42] confirmed that increasing awareness of sustainable eating may help reduce environmental problems by shaping individuals’ food choices in a more eco-conscious direction. These findings, consistent with our results, indicate that environmental awareness plays a critical role in encouraging healthier and more sustainable eating behaviors, including lower consumption of UPFs.
In our study, individuals with higher levels of carbon footprint awareness and awareness of sustainable eating were less likely to consume UPFs. In addition, understanding the demographic factors that influence UPF consumption is essential for developing effective public health interventions. Our findings indicated that UPF consumption was significantly higher among younger, non-working, and single individuals. This trend may be attributed to the greater accessibility, affordability, and palatability of UPFs, which particularly appeal to younger populations [43]. This pattern underscores the importance of considering sociodemographic Dynamics particularly age and employment status when designing targeted strategies to reduce UPF intake and promote sustainable eating behaviors.
In addition to their palatability, UPFs are often promoted through marketing strategies that appeal to impulsive buying tendencies, including attractive packaging and limited-time offers [44]. Economic factors also appear to play a role, particularly among unemployed individuals. Unemployment or low socioeconomic status may lead individuals to consume more UPFs, as these products are typically more affordable and readily accessible. Similarly, single individuals may prefer UPFs due to their convenience and the reduced motivation to prepare meals [45]. This pattern may also be shaped by social norms. Previous studies suggest that individuals tend to align their eating behaviors with those of their social environment, especially under the influence of family, peers, or online communities [46, 47]. In particular, social media is thought to be a powerful driver in the widespread consumption of UPFs. Influencer-driven marketing and exposure to trending food content on digital platforms may significantly influence individuals’ preferences for these products [48]. Taken together, these influences illustrate the complex interplay of psychological, social, and structural factors shaping UPF consumption, highlighting the need for multifaceted public health interventions.
On the other hand, health-oriented social environments can promote healthier and more sustainable eating behaviors by reducing the consumption of UPFs and encouraging the intake of fresh, natural alternatives. Therefore, community-based nutrition interventions and awareness-raising efforts may play a critical role in shaping social norms toward more health-conscious choices. In line with these observations, identifying the determinants of UPF consumption is crucial. According to the regression analysis in our study, the key predictors of UPF consumption were age, carbon footprint awareness, and sustainable and healthy eating behaviors. Similarly, carbon footprint awareness was predicted by age, UPF consumption levels, and sustainable and healthy eating behaviors. Lastly, sustainable and healthy eating behaviors were influenced by carbon footprint awareness and UPF consumption. The interdependence of these variables highlights the close interaction between individual eating behaviors and environmental awareness.
Our findings are supported by previous studies demonstrating that higher consumption of UPFs is linked not only to adverse health outcomes but also to significant environmental harm. For instance, in Brazil, the contribution to both carbon and water footprints has tripled in recent years, largely due to increased UPF consumption in densely urbanized regions [49]. These findings reinforce the idea that dietary patterns and environmental awareness are not separate domains, but rather mutually reinforcing elements of a sustainable public health strategy.
In the United Kingdom, a study found that frozen industrial UPF-based meals had a greater environmental impact than comparable home-cooked meals, primarily due to packaging waste and energy use [50]. Similarly, research in Australia showed that UPFs contribute to more than one-third of the nation’s dietary carbon and water footprint—an impact expected to double by 2050 if current trends continue [51]. Supporting these results, another study confirmed that a higher proportion of UPFs in the diet leads to increased carbon and water footprints [52]. Systematic meta-analyses have also concluded that UPFs negatively affect both environmental and health outcomes, being associated with lower overall diet quality, increased risk of non-communicable diseases, and all-cause mortality [53,54,55]. Environmentally, increased UPF consumption has been linked to biodiversity loss, elevated greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs), and greater water and land use [49, 56]. In line with our findings, Kesse-Guyot et al. [57] observed that the highest dietary share of UPFs was associated with the worst environmental indicators, including GHGEs, fossil resource depletion, and ecological footprint. Collectively, this body of evidence emphasizes the urgent need to reconsider the widespread consumption of UPFs not only as a nutritional concern but also as a key driver of environmental degradation.
In this context, the rising consumption of UPFs presents significant challenges for both public health and environmental sustainability, particularly in relation to carbon emissions. The findings of this study contribute to the growing body of literature by revealing the complex interplay between UPF consumption, sustainable and healthy eating behaviors, and carbon footprint awareness in adults. These results emphasize the need for holistic strategies that address both nutritional choices and climate-conscious behaviors. Future research should adopt longitudinal or intervention-based designs, include a broader range of sociodemographic characteristics, incorporate objective dietary assessment methods, and further explore the role of digital media in shaping food-related carbon awareness. Such approaches may enhance our understanding of how individuals’ eating behaviors intersect with their environmental responsibilities.
This study offers several strengths. It is among the first to simultaneously examine the relationship between UPF consumption, sustainable and healthy eating behaviors, and carbon footprint awareness in a large adult sample. The use of validated and reliable measurement tools enhances the methodological rigor, and detailed statistical analyses provided valuable insight into both individual and environmentally relevant dietary patterns. However, some limitations should be acknowledged. The cross-sectional design prevents causal inference, as it captures associations at a single time point. Self-reported data, including anthropometric indicators such as body mass index (BMI), may be subject to recall and social desirability bias. Furthermore, this study did not include variables such as participants’ income levels, occupational status, residential area (urban/rural), or dietary patterns (e.g., vegetarian, vegan), which may have influenced both carbon footprint awareness and eating behaviors. Future research should explore these variables to better capture the multifaceted nature of sustainable dietary practices. Moreover, actual dietary intake records were not collected, limiting the ability to quantify UPF consumption precisely. The exclusion of participants’ health status such as chronic diseases or allergies also presents a limitation, as these conditions may influence both eating behavior and sustainability attitudes. Finally, the online survey method may have led to underrepresentation of individuals without digital access, such as older adults or those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Despite these limitations, the study provides meaningful contributions by illuminating the behavioral and environmental dimensions of UPF consumption and offering evidence that can inform nutrition and sustainability oriented interventions.
