China’s drive toward self-reliance in artificial intelligence: from chips to large language models

China’s drive toward self-reliance in artificial intelligence: from chips to large language models

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46    | The main innovations it used include a more memory-efficient implementation of attention operators (multi-head latent attention, or MLA), a key building block of LLMs; using smaller data field sizes during training (FPA-8); and using a Mixture-of-Experts approach to improve efficiency.

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64    | “‘杭州六小龙’出圈背后:城市与创业者的相互成就 (Behind the popularity of the ‘Hangzhou Six Little Drag- ons’: the mutual achievement of cities and entrepreneurs)” (2025). Retrieved April 30, 2025, from Securi- ties Times https://web.archive.org/web/20250224053509/https:/www.stcn.com/article/detail/1529436. html

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66    | Yu, Yifan (2025). “China venture capitalists hold back on AI deals despite DeepSeek buzz.” Retrieved June 13, 2025, from Nikkei Asia https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Technology/China-venture-capitalists-hold- back-on-AI-deals-despite-DeepSeek-buzz

67    | “Whole-of-Nation Innovation: Does China’s Socialist System Give it an Edge in Science and Technology?
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69    | Rhodium Group (2023). Spread Thin: China’s Science and Technology Spending in an Economic Slow- down –. Retrieved from https://rhg.com/research/spread-thin-chinas-science-and-technology-spending- in-an-economic-slowdown/

70    | Stanford HAI (2025). Policy Implications of DeepSeek AI’s Talent Base. Retrieved from https://hai.stan- ford.edu/policy/policy-implications-of-deepseek-ai-talent-base

71    | “The Global AI Talent Tracker 2.0” (n.d.). Retrieved June 24, 2025, from MacroPolo https://archivemacro- polo.org/interactive/digital-projects/the-global-ai-talent-tracker/

72    | “2025 AI技术人才供需洞察报告 (2025 AI Tech Talent Supply and Demand Insights Report)” (2025).
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73    | Feldgoise, Jacob, Aiken, Catherine, Weinstein, Emily S., & Arnold, Zachary (2023). “Studying Tech Competition through Research Output: Some CSET Best Practices.” Center for Security and Emerging Technology. Retrieved from https://cset.georgetown.edu/article/studying-tech-competition-through-re- search-output-some-cset-best-practices/CSET,

74    | Ibid.

75    | “Country Activity Tracker (CAT): Artificial Intelligence, China and United States” (2024). Retrieved April 30, 2025, from Emerging Technology Observatory, Center for Security and Emerging Technology https:// cat.eto.tech/?countries=China%20%28mainland%29%2CUnited%20States&countryGroups=&expand- ed=Summary-metrics%2CCountry-co-authorship CSET ETO

76    | “EU launches InvestAI initiative to mobilise €200 billion of investment in artificial intelligence” (2025).
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77    | “DeepSeek, a National Treasure in China, is Now Being Closely Guarded” (2025). Retrieved June 13, 2025, from The Information https://www.theinformation.com/articles/deepseek-national-treasure-chi- na-now-closely-guarded

78    | Beraja, Martin, Yang, David Y, & Yuchtman, Noam (2023). “Data-intensive Innovation and the State: Evidence from AI Firms in China.” The Review of Economic Studies, 90(4), 1701–1723. https://doi. org/10.1093/restud/rdac056

79    | “专家解读 | 畅通数据汇聚、供给、利用堵点 凝力推进数据集高质量建设-国家数据局 (Expert Interpretation
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80    | Arcesati, Rebecca, & He, Alex (2024). “Data Marketplaces and Governance: Lessons from China.” Re- trieved April 30, 2025, from Centre for International Governance Innovation https://www.cigionline.org/ articles/data-marketplaces-and-governance-lessons-from-china/

81    | “专家解读之一 | 大力发展数据标注产业 推动我国人工智能创新发展 (Expert Interpretation Series 1 | Vig- orously Developing the Data Labeling Industry to Drive China’s AI Innovation and Development
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82    | “China’s AI Development Model in an Era of Technological Deglobalization – IGCC” (n.d.). Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://ucigcc.org/ https://ucigcc.org/publication/chinas-ai-development-mod- el-in-an-era-of-technological-deglobalization/

83    | Chen, Caiwei (2025). “China built hundreds of AI data centers to catch the AI boom. Now many stand unused.” MIT Technology Review. Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview. com/2025/03/26/1113802/china-ai-data-centers-unused/

84    | “DeepSeek Debates: Chinese Leadership On Cost, True Training Cost, Closed Model Margin Impacts” (2025). Retrieved June 13, 2025, from SemiAnalysis https://semianalysis.com/2025/01/31/deepseek-de- bates/Robertson, Jordan, Hawkins, Mackenzie, & Leonard, Jenny (2025). “US Probing If DeepSeek Got Nvidia Chips From Firms in Singapore.” Bloomberg.Com. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/ news/articles/2025-01-31/us-probing-whether-deepseek-got-nvidia-chips-through-singapore

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